Switzerland

The history of Switzerland, a complex series of events, provides the background for an understanding of the country's present-day cultural differences. Because of its central location in western Europe and pass routes through the Alps, which linked French and German lands with the Italian peninsula, Switzerland was coveted by surrounding powers. Swiss history,

Interior Design, Institutional interiors

Schools, hospitals, and universities are examples of institutions now extensively using the services of interior designers and architects. Many universities have staff designers dealing with the institution's many design needs, from office spaces to dormitories. Certain institutional needs, such as operating rooms in hospitals, are strictly functional, yet

Zárate

City, northeastern Buenos Aires province, Argentina, on the Río Paraná de las Palmas, a channel of the lower Paraná delta emptying into the Río de la Plata northwest of Buenos Aires. Founded in 1825 as Rincón de Zárate, the settlement was given city status in 1909. From 1932 to 1946 it was known as General Uriburu. Although wheat, alfalfa, flax, and potatoes are cultivated and livestock are

Furniture, Mirrors

The use of mirror glass in furnishings arose during the 17th century. The discoloration of the melted glass because of silvering and, not least, the prohibitive cost and difficulty of manufacturing mirror glass of considerable size restricted the possibilities of large-scale application. The mirror gallery at Versailles was thus an outstanding technical achievement

Damir, Al-

Also spelled  El-Damer  or  Al-Damar  town, northeastern Sudan. It lies on the right (east) bank of the Nile River, about 155 miles (250 km) northeast of Khartoum. Located at an elevation of 1,158 feet (353 metres), it is a local commercial centre for the date-producing areas to the north. The town's industries include date packing, distilling of alcohol and liqueurs, and canning of other local produce, such as tomatoes, mangoes, and

Olomouc

Olomouc possibly originated as a Roman fort (Mons Iulii) and by the 9th century was an important stronghold. A bishopric, established there in 1063, was raised to an archbishopric in 1777. At the Peace

Tall Za'tar

Also called  Zaátar,   former Palestinian refugee camp, Jabal Lubnan muhafazah (governorate), central Lebanon, north of Beirut, near Nabay. The camp was the last large Muslim outpost in the midst of the predominantly Christian inhabited area of north Lebanon and had a population estimated at 15,000 in the mid-1970s. During the Lebanese civil war (that began in the spring of 1975) between Muslims and Christians,

Anisian Stage

Lowermost of two divisions of the Middle Triassic Series, representing those rocks deposited worldwide during Anisian time (242 million to 234 million years ago) in the Triassic Period. The stage name is derived from an area of limestone formations along the Anisus River at Grossreifling in the Austrian Alps. The Anisian Stage is subdivided, in ascending order, into the

Adder

Any of several venomous snakes of the viper family, Viperidae, and the death adder, a viperlike member of the cobra snake family, Elapidae. The name adder may also be applied to certain other snakes, such as the hognose snake (q.v.), a harmless North American species. Among the adders of the viper family are included the common adder (Vipera berus), the puff adders (several species

Andean Peoples

Even these two technological developments, however, are not enough to characterize and explain the emergence of Andean civilizations. From the intimate knowledge of their environmental conditions, the people developed a set of values that may have started from a desire to minimize risks but that soon was elaborated into an economic and political ideal. Every

Biblical Literature, Background

The historical background of the New Testament and its times must be viewed in conjunction with the Jewish matrix from which it evolved and the Hellenistic (Greek cultural) world into which it expanded during a period of Jewish religious propaganda. It is difficult, however, to separate the phenomena of the Jewish and Hellenistic backgrounds, because the Judaism

Ligorio, Pirro

Italian architect, painter, landscaper, and antiquarian who designed the Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550–69), which still stands in its original state. Built for Ligorio's patron, Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, the villa has a planted landscape and a vast terraced garden with spectacular fountains leading up to the huge house. Ligorio also built the Casino

Bess Beetle

Also called  Bess-bug, Betsy Bug, or Horned Passalus Beetle  (family Passalidae), any of approximately 800 species of insects found mainly in the tropics but also in North America (e.g., Passalus cornutus) and characterized by their large size, ranging between 30 and 40 mm (1.2 and 1.6 inches) in length. Because of their shiny black wing covers (elytra), they are sometimes called patent-leather beetles. They are rather flat and

Siddha

In Jainism, one who has achieved perfection. By right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct a siddha has freed himself from the cycle of rebirths and resides in a state of perpetual bliss in the siddha-sila, at the top of the universe. The siddha and the other ascetics constitute the pañca-paramesthin, the five chief divinities of the Jainas. Their figures are represented

World War I

Dwight E. Lee (ed.), The Outbreak of the First World War: Causes and Responsibilities, 4th ed. (1975), is a good introduction to the debate on the origins of World War I. A more detailed account is provided in Luigi Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, 3 vol. (1952–57, reprinted 1980; originally published in Italian, 1942–43). A comprehensive general account of the war is Bernadotte E. Schmitt and Harold C. Vedeler, The World in the Crucible, 1914–1919 (1984). The standard military histories are Basil Henry Liddell Hart, A History of the World War, 1914–1918, enl. ed. (1934, reprinted 1970); Cyril B. Falls, The Great War (1959); and Marc Ferro, The Great War, 1914–1918 (1973, reprinted 1987; originally published in French, 1969). J.E. Edmonds (comp.), A Short History of World War I (1951, reprinted 1968); and John Terraine, The Great War, 1914–1918: A Pictorial History (1965, reprinted 1978), are useful introductions. Naval operations during the war are discussed in Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919, 5 vol. (1961–70). International diplomacy during the war is treated in Z.A.B. Zeman, The Gentlemen Negotiators (1971; U.K. title, A Diplomatic History of the First World War).

Merchant Guild

A European medieval association composed of traders interested in international commerce. The privileged fraternity formed by the merchants of Tiel in Gelderland (in present-day Netherlands) about 1020 is the first undoubted precursor of the merchant guilds, and the statutes of a similar body at St. Omer, France, actually use the term gilda mercatoria before the end

Arfvedsonite

Amphibole mineral, an iron-rich sodium silicate. Lithium and magnesium replace iron in the structure to form eckermannite. Both minerals characteristically occur as dark-green crystals in alkali igneous rocks and their associated pegmatites. For chemical formula and detailed physical properties, see amphibole (table).

Hoisin Sauce

Commercially prepared, thick reddish-brown sauce used in Chinese cuisine both as an ingredient in cooking and as a table condiment. Made from soybeans, flour, sugar, water, spices, garlic, and chili, it is sweet and spicy. It is used in cooking shellfish and fatty meats such as pork and duck. As a condiment, hoisin sauce is eaten with shrimp, pork, and poultry and is invariably

Yunus Emre

Though legend obscures the facts of his life, he is known to have been a Sufi (Islamic mystic) who sat for 40 years at the feet of his master, Tapduk Emre. Yunus Emre was well versed in mystical philosophy, especially that of the 13th-century poet and mystic Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi. Like Rumi, Yunus Emre

Romanus Iv Diogenes

In 1068 Romanus married Eudocia Macrembolitissa, widow of the emperor Constantine X Ducas. He led military expeditions against the Seljuq Turks but was defeated and captured by them at the Battle of Manzikert (1071). On his release Romanus found that

Crakow

Also spelled  crackowe  long, pointed, spiked shoe worn by both men and women first in the mid-14th century and then condemned by law. Crakows were named after the city of Kraków (Cracow), Pol., and they were also known as poulaines (Polish). Crakows were admired on the feet of the courtiers of Anne of Bohemia, who married Richard II of England. The exaggerated toes were imitated even in

Catalufa

Any of certain fishes of the bigeye (q.v.) group.

Bothwell, Francis Stewart Hepburn, 5th Earl Of

Nephew of the 4th earl; by his dissolute and proud behaviour he caused King James VI of Scotland (afterward James I of Great Britain) gradually to consider him a rival and a threat to the Scottish crown and was made an outlaw. Through his father, John Stewart, prior of Coldingham, he was a grandson of King James V and was thus related to Mary, Queen of Scots,

Molina, Luis De

Molina's